Theravada Buddhism
(Part One)
Chapter (1)
Theravada and Mahayana
A Brief Account of the Buddha’s Life
The Bodhisattva, Prince Siddhartha, was born from the great queen Sirimahāmāyā, wife of King Suddhodana of Kapilavatthu, in the Lumbini grove on the full moon day of Kason in the 68th year of the Mahāsakkarāj era. At the age of 16, the Bodhisattva, together with Princess Yasodharā, enjoyed royal pleasures in three palaces until the age of 29.
Afterward, upon seeing the four great signs and feeling a sense of religious urgency (saṃvega), he went forth into the forest and practiced the Dhamma. He arduously practiced austerities known as Dukkara-cariyā. Not finding the true Dhamma, he switched to practicing the Middle Path (Majjhimā-paṭipadā). On the full moon day of Kason in the 103rd year of the Mahāsakkarāj era, he attained Buddhahood.
After attaining Buddhahood, he dispensed the cool, immortal nectar of the Dhamma to gods, humans, and brahmas. He preached the Dhamma sermons for a full 45 years.
At the age of 80, on the full moon day of Kason in the 148th year of the Mahāsakkarāj era, in the Sal grove of the Malla kings in the city of Kusināra, he attained Parinibbāna.
Explanation of Eras
Mahāsakkarāj refers to the era established by the ancient kings before the Buddha’s appearance. Sāsanā Sakkarāj (Buddhist Era) is the era counted from the year of the First Saṅgāyana (Council) after the Buddha’s Parinibbāna. Myanmar Sakkarāj is the era established under King Popa Sawrahan. The Christian Era (BC) refers to the years before the birth of Christ. The Christian Era (AD) is counted from the years after the birth of Christ. The Buddhist Era is 1182 years older than the Burmese Era.
It is 544 years older than the Christian Era. The Christian Era (AD) is 638 years older than the Burmese Era. Therefore, Buddhist histories have established 544 BC as the year of the Lord Buddha’s Parinibbāna. This differs slightly from what world history states.
The Cause of the Sangha Schism
After the Lord Buddha’s Parinibbāna, the disciples, the Arahat Sangha, followed and practiced the sermons preached by the Lord Buddha with one accord. When it reached 100 years into the Sāsana, views began to change within the world of the Arahats.
New ideas emerged. They began to revise the Buddha’s Vinaya rules. These Arahats were the Vajjiputtaka monks from the city of Vesāli, also called the Vajji-country monks. The Vajji-country monks were practicing ten points (dasavatthūni) that went against the Lord Buddha’s Vinaya teachings. The ten unwholesome points that these individuals revised and practiced are as follows:
(1) Siṅgiloṇakappa: They ruled that it was permissible to store salt in a horn and mix it with food to eat every day. (According to the Vinaya, if an Arahat stores provisions for themselves and uses them with alms food on a later day, it is a pācittiya offense.)
(2) Dvaṅgulakappa: They ruled that Arahats could consume food up to two finger-breadths of the sun’s shadow past midday. (According to the Vinaya, if an Arahat consumes staple food after midday, it is a pācittiya offense for eating at the wrong time.)
(3) Gāmantarakappa: They ruled that within a single monastery boundary, the Sangha could split into groups to perform Sangha acts. (According to the Vinaya, within one monastery boundary, Sangha members must sit close enough to be within an arm’s length of each other to perform acts of Sangha unity. Performing Sangha acts as separate groups invalidates the act. It is an offense due to causing disunity in the Sangha.)
(4) Āvāsakappa: They ruled that at a Sangha meeting, if the Sangha was not fully assembled, the Sangha members present could perform a Sangha act, intending to get the consent of the absent members later.
(At a Sangha assembly, monks who cannot attend must give their consent beforehand for whatever is decided. Consent given after the assembly is not valid. Therefore, a decision made by only a portion of the Sangha without full consent is not valid. A decision made without Sangha unity is also not successful.)
(5) Anumatikappa: They ruled that they could adopt and perform a custom that was practiced by their teachers. Because they were following their teachers, it was not an offense, they claimed. (If the customs and practices of the teachers are in accordance with the Vinaya, it is not an offense. However, if they are not in accordance with the Vinaya, it is an offense.)
(6) Āciṇṇakappa: They ruled that if a monk, who had indicated he was finished eating (pavārita), had a reason to go to another village, he could eat alms food without performing the act of having it made leftover (atireka-vinayakamma). (A monk is considered to have finished eating when he says “Enough.” He is not allowed to eat more. If he wishes to eat again, he must offer the food to another monk. Only when that monk gives it back does he have permission to eat. The act of doing so is called performing the atireka-vinayakamma. Eating without performing this act is a pācittiya offense.)
(7) Amathitakappa: They ruled that a monk who had finished eating could drink buttermilk that had not yet turned into curd, without performing the atireka-vinayakamma. (In the Vinaya, it is loosely claimed that buttermilk, whether it is considered a staple food or not, is exempt from the Buddha’s rules on food, being considered a non-staple food that has not yet turned into curd.)
(8) Jalogi: They ruled that Arahats could drink unfermented toddy and palm juice that had not yet become intoxicants while it was being fermented from jaggery, palm sugar, and molasses. (Arahats are not allowed to consume intoxicating liquor, palm wine, rice wine, or unfermented spirits. Consuming them is a pācittiya offense.)
(9) Adasaka-nisīdana: They ruled that it was proper for monks to use a sitting mat without a border of the prescribed size. (The Buddha ruled that a borderless sitting mat (nisīdana) is not required.)
(10) Jātarūpa-rajata: They ruled that monks could accept gold and silver as alms. (The Buddha ruled that monks must not accept gold and silver.)
Theravada and the Mahāsaṅghika
The monks of the Vajji country were openly and actively practicing the ten points mentioned above (dasavatthūni) as if they were legitimate acts. When the great elder Venerable Mahā Yasa heard this news, he came to the Mahāvana monastery in the city of Vesāli. At that time, it coincided with the Sangha’s Uposatha day. On that day, the monks had placed a large golden bowl in the middle of the Sangha assembly.
They preached to the laymen and laywomen who came to hear the Dhamma on Uposatha day to make donations for their requisites. The people donated according to their capacity. Venerable Mahā Yasa told them not to do this, as this practice was not in accordance with the Vinaya Dhamma. However, the Vajji monks did not accept Venerable Mahā Yasa’s words.
They accused him, saying, “Venerable Mahā Yasa is the one obstructing the faith of the devotees.” Finally, they performed an act of suspension (Ukkhepaniyakamma) against Venerable Mahā Yasa, banning him from the Sangha.
Venerable Mahā Yasa, being in disagreement with the Vajji country monks, had to gather monks who shared his views. At that time, he was able to gather a large number of monks who wished to accept the Buddha’s teachings with reverence. Venerable Mahā Yasa, together with the Sangha who agreed with him, decided to hold a council (Saṅgāyana) on the Buddha’s teachings.
At the Saṅgāyana, all the attending venerable Sangha “decided to accept and practice the Dhamma teachings of the Lord Buddha as they were in their original form, without alteration, addition, or subtraction.” This sect later became known as the “Theravada” sect.
When the monks of the Vajji country heard this news, they also gathered monks who agreed with them. Then, with 10,000 monks in agreement, they held a separate council in Kosambi. They called their council the “Mahāsangīti” (The Great Recital). They also named their monastic group the “Mahāsāṅghika sect.”
Therefore, 100 years into the Sāsana, the world of the Buddha’s monastic disciples split into two major sects:
- The Theravada Buddhist Sect
- The Mahāsāṅghika Buddhist Sect
Buddhist Sects
After the great Mahāsāṅghika sect broke away from the original Buddhism, other groups of monks also became interested in forming their own sects. Powerful Sangha leaders formed new sects whenever conditions were right and the opportunity arose.
From the great Mahāsāṅghika sect
(1) The Gokulika sect
(2) The Ekavyahārika sect
split into 2 sects.
…then from the Gokulika sect
(3) The Paññattivāda sect
(4) The Bahussutīya sect
split into 2 sects.
Then from the Bahussutīya sect
(5) The Cetiyavāda sect
split off as 1 sect.
Therefore, including the original, the Mahāsāṅghika sect split into a total of (6) sects.
Following the Mahāsāṅghika sect, the original Theravada also split into various sects.
Initially, from the original Theravada sect…
(1) The Mahīsasaka sect
(2) The Vajjiputtaka sect
split into 2 sects.
(3) The Dhammuttariya sect
(4) The Bhadrayānika sect
(5) The Chandāgārika sect
(6) The Sammitīya sect
split into 4 sects.
…then from the Mahīsasaka sect
(7) The Sabbatthivāda sect
(8) The Dhammaguttika sect
split into 2 sects.
…then from the Sabbatthivāda sect
(9) The Kassapīya sect
broke away again.
…then from the Kassapīya sect
(10) The Sankantika sect
broke away again.
…then from the Sankantika sect
(11) The Suttavāda sect
broke away again.
Therefore, including the original Theravada, there were a total of (12) Theravada sects. Including the Theravada and Mahāsāṅghika major sects, the total number of sects was (18).
This account of 18 sects is mentioned in the Dīpavaṃsa chronicle. In addition to these sects, the commentary on the Kathāvatthu mentions that there were further splits, such as the Pubbaseliya, Aparaseliya, Rājagirika, Siddhatthika, Hemavatika, Vājiriya, Uttarāpathaka, Vetullaka, and Hetuvāda sects.
Furthermore, in the records of Vasumitra, written in Sanskrit, other sect names are also present.
In the records of the great Sanskrit scholar Vasu, new and distinct sect names are found again. In Vasu’s record, a name called the “Vibhajjavāda sect” is included. This sect’s name is not in the above list of 18 sects. This sect is an important one for the parent Theravada sect. It is also a notable sect in the history of the Sāsana.
The sects mentioned were ones that split within about 200 years of the Sāsana. Around the time of King Asoka’s ascent to the throne, the various sects were growing with their own strength and influence, and among them, the Vibhajjavāda sect was a great sect that received the patronage and support of King Asoka.
Theravada and the Vibhajjavāda Sect
The records state that the Vibhajjavāda sect was a schism from the original Theravada. It cannot be said at what time it split. However, it can be said that the Vibhajjavāda sect was already flourishing during the reign of the great King Asoka. After King Asoka ascended the throne and became a Buddhist, disputes concerning Buddhism arose in India. It was no longer the pure Buddhism. Heretics from outside the Sāsana had entered the Sāsana and become monks. However, they did not strive for the Dhamma of monks. They only continued the work of heretics. They did not understand the Buddha’s Dhamma. Asoka had to take action for the purification of the Sāsana.
He questioned the monks on the Dhamma. At that time, when asked, some pseudo-monks could not answer. When asked, “What is the doctrine of the Blessed One?” some monks said, “The Blessed One has the doctrine of Sassata (Eternalism).” Others answered, “The Blessed One has the doctrine of Uccheda (Annihilationism).” Asoka had these pseudo-monks disrobed and expelled from the Sangha.
King Asoka asked the good monks, “Venerable Sirs, what is the doctrine of the Blessed One?” At that time, the monks replied, “Great King, the Blessed One is a Vibhajjavādin, one who analyzes and teaches, distinguishing and setting aside the doctrines of Sassata and Uccheda, and speaking from the middle.”
When King Asoka heard this answer, he concluded that he had found the true and correct monks. He then promoted and patronized the Sangha of that Vibhajjavāda sect. At that time, it can be said that the Vibhajjavāda sect was the main object of worship for the great King Asoka.
The tenets of the Vibhajjavāda sect are not recorded in the histories of the Sāsana. The reason this is not shown is likely because their views, tenets, and Dhamma were the same as the original Theravada. Because their tenets were the same, the Vibhajjavāda sect was later able to merge back with the original Theravada.
The Division by the Brahmins
That the Buddhist sects split so much within a few hundred years cannot be separated from the divisive and subversive actions of the Brahmins. The Brahmins were those who viewed Buddhism with hostility. From the very time the Buddha appeared, the Brahmins considered him an enemy.
It is true. The Buddha preached by refuting the important tenets held by the Brahmins. The Brahmins held to the doctrine of Attā (self). The Buddha, however, mainly preached the doctrine of Anattā (no-self), which was like being struck a blow for the Brahmins, causing them pain. In addition to this, in the social sphere, the Brahmins had established the caste system and separated the classes of people. The Buddha also refuted and preached against this caste system. How could the Brahmins be pleased?
The Brahmins established the eternal creator god, Brahma. The Buddha denied the creator god. Because the Buddha preached by refuting the core tenets of the Brahmins, the Buddha became their enemy. They became a hostile force.
By the time of the Asokan era, with the strong support for Buddhism, the Brahmins were obscure and diminished. At such a time, some Brahmins entered and subverted Buddhism from within. The Brahmins, cloaked as Buddhists, studied the Buddhist Piṭakas and wrote scriptures. They inserted their own views and tenets into Buddhism. There were also those who liked the newly inserted tenets. These individuals accepted the scriptures containing the new tenets and established new sects and groups. In this way, new sects appeared one after another.
As early as the 3rd century B.C., during the time of King Asoka, the Mahāvastu-avadāna scripture, which came from the Mahāsāṅghika sect, had sneakily inserted the doctrine of the Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara. Later, that Bodhisattva became a main object of worship for the Mahayana sect.
By the time the Mahayana sect had clearly emerged, they had also adopted and accepted the Brahminical doctrines of Tantra and Mantra. In the end, Buddhism in India became mixed and confused with Hindu-Brahminism.
Buddhism in the Sunga Period
The Buddhist sects were active throughout the Indian subcontinent. Some sects grew and developed. Some sects, however, were weak. If the ruling king promoted a sect, it would inevitably flourish. Among those sects, the one that rose to prominence due to King Asoka’s promotion was the great Theravada Vibhajjavāda sect.
Along with the Vibhajjavāda sect, there were two other prominent major sects. These were the Theravada-derived Sabbatthivāda (Sarvāstivāda) sect and the Mahāsāṅghika sect.
Therefore, in the post-Asokan period, three major prominent sects can be seen. They are…
(1) Theravada and Vibhajjavāda sect
(2) Theravada Sabbatthivāda sect
(3) Mahāsāṅghika sect.
While these great sects were flourishing, dynastic changes occurred in Asoka’s empire. In the Magadha kingdom, in the year 185 B.C., a Brahmin named Pushyamitra overthrew the Mauryan dynasty and established the Sunga dynasty. King Sunga Pushyamitra, being of Brahmin descent, primarily worshipped the Brahmin religion.
He declared the Brahmin religion as the state religion. He performed great Yajña sacrifices, killing animals. The Brahmins, having regained their power, began to suppress Buddhism, which they had held as their main enemy.
King Sunga Pushyamitra, yielding to the wishes of the Brahmins, issued proclamations. He even announced that he would give a reward of 1000 gold coins for the head of any Buddhist monk within his empire. Buddhist monks, unable to live safely in the Magadha and Kosala regions of central India, had to flee to the frontiers.
At that time, the powerful Theravada Sangha community migrated to the Sanchi (Sāñcī) stupa near the city of Vidisha (Vidiśā).
The Sangha of the Theravada Sabbatthivāda sect migrated to the Urumuṇḍa (Govardhana) mountain near the city of Mathura in the northwestern part of India.
At that time, the Sangha of the Vibhajjavāda sect also had to migrate to the southern regions. The Sangha of the Vibhajjavāda sect, having had connections with Venerable Mahinda and Sanghamitta, crossed over to the island of Sri Lanka. There, they joined with the Sri Lankan Sangha and continued to propagate the Sāsana. From that time on, the name Vibhajjavāda disappeared, and it became one and the same with the original Theravada.
King Kanishka and Buddhism
After the Sunga dynasty ended in Magadha, the Kanva dynasty was established. As that dynasty was also conquered by the Andhras, the entire southeastern part of India fell under the hands of the Andhra kings. At that time, the entire northern region of India was also invaded, conquered, and ruled by foreign peoples. Among them, the most prominent dynasty was the Kushan dynasty.
The Kushan people conquered the entire northern region of India and, starting from 40 A.D., established the Kushan dynasty. Among these kings, King Kanishka, who reigned from 120 to 162 A.D., was the most powerful.
King Kanishka was originally a follower of a Persian religion. Later, after becoming a Buddhist, he gave great support to the flourishing of the Buddhist Sāsana. Buddhists call this king the “Second Asoka.” King Kanishka primarily supported and revered the monks of the Sabbatthivāda sect, which was a branch of the Theravada sect. At that time, the Theravada Sabbatthivāda sect was very powerful.
At that time, the original Theravada and Vibhajjavāda Sangha were based in Sanchi in the south of India. The two sects were very far apart.
After King Kanishka became a Buddhist, he built numerous religious monuments. He searched for the Buddha’s relics and enshrined them in stupas and pagodas.
In the capital city of Puruṣapura, he built a great stupa that was over 160 cubits high and 300 cubits in circumference, which became famous as the Kanishka Stupa. Near the stupa, he also planted and worshipped a Mahabodhi tree. He built a large monastery for the venerable monks to reside in. It was even called the “Kanishka Monastery.”
The great king entrusted the Kanishka monastery and other religious structures to the great teachers of the Sabbatthivāda sect for their administration and care. At that time, the Kanishka monastery was a great center for Buddhist studies. Even when King Kanishka was no more, the monks of the Theravada Sabbatthivāda sect continued to carry out the work of propagating the Sāsana from that monastery.
In the records of Chinese monks, it is said that for about 1,000 years, that monastery was one that taught the scriptures of the Theravada lineage. According to Chinese records, the monks of the Sabbatthivāda sect even called themselves “Theravada.” However, their “Theravada” was not the original parent Theravada but the Sabbatthivāda branch of Theravada.
According to archaeological research, a relic casket of King Kanishka found in the area has an inscription in Sanskrit. The inscription “Ācāryāṇāṃ Sarvāstivādīnāṃ parigrahe” means “For the acceptance of the teachers of the Sarvāstivāda school.” Therefore, it can be concluded that the Theravada Sangha at the Kanishka monastery were members of the Sabbatthivāda sect.
The Sangha Council of Kanishka
During the reign of King Kanishka, the Buddhist sects in India were quite strong. They were not in agreement regarding doctrinal matters. There were disputes. King Kanishka was not pleased with this division among the Buddhists. He wanted all the sects to unite and be in harmony.
To achieve this unity, he realized that it would only be possible by holding a council like King Asoka had done. Therefore, he consulted with the monks of the Theravada Sabbatthivāda sect, whom he revered, and decided to hold a council to codify the Buddha’s teachings. He invited Sangha members from all sects within his country. Almost all sects from the Mahāsāṅghika lineage attended.
It is said that only a few venerable monks from the southern Theravada attended this council. Since the council was led by the Theravada Sabbatthivāda sect, the Sangha of the original (parent) Theravada attended only as observers. Furthermore, the parent Theravada Sangha did not include this council in their list of councils.
There was also a Sangha sect that did not attend at all. This sect was the Theravada Vibhajjavāda, which had led King Asoka’s council. This sect had already merged with the parent Theravada sect. King Kanishka appointed the teacher Venerable Vasumitra of the Sabbatthivāda sect as the chief, and with 500 venerable monks from various sects, he held the council.
From that council, the monks compiled the Mahāvibhāṣā, a commentary on the Sutta, Vinaya, and Abhidhamma. They are:
(1) The Sutta Piṭaka Vibhāṣā commentary (gāthā one hundred thousand)
(2) The Vinaya Piṭaka Vibhāṣā commentary (gāthā one hundred thousand)
(3) The Abhidhamma Piṭaka Vibhāṣā commentary (gāthā one hundred thousand).
King Kanishka had these three hundred thousand gāthās of the Vibhāṣā commentaries inscribed in Sanskrit on copper plates, which were then enshrined in a stupa, it is said.
These Vibhāṣā commentaries were later translated into the Chinese language.
King Kanishka undertook the work of propagating the Sāsana not only within India but also in foreign countries. Therefore, during his reign, Buddhism spread to neighboring countries.
Theravada, Mahayana, Hinayana
At the time of Kanishka’s council, the name Mahayana did not yet exist. King Kanishka, with the intention of uniting the religious sects, gathered all the sects and held the council. However, Kanishka’s intention was not realized. The religious sects did not disappear. New sects continued to emerge.
Some sects did not accept the teachings of the Theravada Sabbatthivāda sect, which was established under King Kanishka. They continued to develop new doctrines. These sects prospered in the northern regions. Their missionary activities were also widespread.
Due to this widespread influence, between the 2nd and 4th centuries A.D., these Sangha sects began to call their sect “Mahayana,” which means the “Great Vehicle.” Those that did not share their tenets, such as the Sabbatthivāda sect, were called the “Hinayana” sect or the “Lesser Vehicle,” a pejorative term.
At the time of this naming, the original parent Theravada had no connection with the Mahayanists. The sects that the Mahayanists called “Hinayana” were some of the sects that had split off from Kanishka’s council. Later, the great Mahayana sect spread to Tibet, Sikkim, Bhutan, Nepal, Mongolia, China, Vietnam, Korea, and Japan.
The sects that were initially called “Hinayana” gradually weakened and faded away in India. At that time, the great parent Theravada sect had reached and established itself in countries like Sri Lanka and Myanmar. Later on, they also began to refer to the Mahayana sect, which did not share their tenets, as “Hinayana,” mixing the terms.
Some historians, because the parent Theravada flourished in the southern regions, call it “Southern Buddhism.” Because the Mahayana sect flourished in the northern regions, they call it “Northern Buddhism.” The Southern Buddhism of Theravada and the Northern Buddhism of Mahayana have many differences in their tenets. Only by searching carefully can one find a few similarities. Most of their doctrines are irreconcilably different.
The Main Path of the Mahayana Sect
The Mahayana scriptures describe three kinds of practice:
They are:
(1) Sāvakayāna (The Vehicle of the Disciple)
(2) Paccekabuddhayāna (The Vehicle of the Solitary Buddha)
(3) Buddhayāna (The Vehicle of the Buddha)
These three “yānas” are the same as the Sāvakabodhi, Sammāsambodhi in Theravada. These three are all paths to Nibbāna. However, Mahayanists consider the Sāvakayāna and Paccekabuddhayāna to be selfish practices and do not encourage them.
They accept that only the Buddhayāna can save beings and is the supreme path. Therefore, they revere the Bodhisattva path. They make and worship many images of Bodhisattvas. Similarly, they sculpt and worship images of Gautama Buddha. Later, worship with Gāthā and Mantras also became widespread.
Among the Bodhisattvas worshipped by Mahayanists, the following prominent Bodhisattvas are found:
Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva: This Bodhisattva is the most famous. Being a Bodhisattva of great compassion, he is one who can even save those who have fallen into the Avīci hell.
Mañjuśrī Bodhisattva: He is one who inspires human beings to understand the true Dhamma. He holds a sword in one hand and a scripture in the other. Holding the sword is to destroy those who do evil. Holding the scripture shows that he constantly practices the ten Pāramīs.
Vajrapāṇi Bodhisattva: He holds a vajra (thunderbolt) like Indra. This Bodhisattva also destroys those who do evil and commit sins.
Maitreya Bodhisattva: This Bodhisattva is the most gentle. He is the Bodhisattva who will become a true Buddha in the future. (This Bodhisattva is also found in Theravada.)
According to the Mahayana sect, every person must take the Bodhisattva vow to be able to save sentient beings. The personal practices of Bodhisattvas include fulfilling the six Pāramīs: Dāna (Generosity), Sīla (Morality), Vīriya (Effort), Khanti (Patience), Jhāna (Meditation), and Paññā (Wisdom). A distinctive feature is that Mahayanists do not place much emphasis on the Vinaya rules. They hold that strict Vinaya rules are not necessary for Bodhisattvas who aspire to Buddhahood.
According to Mahayana belief, all sentient beings are great Bodhisattvas. They differ only in the maturity of their pāramīs, but their fundamental basis is the same. In the end, all sentient beings will attain liberation and reach Nibbāna.
The Fading of Religion in India
When studying the reasons for the decline of religion in the central land where the Buddha appeared, various underlying causes are found. Among them, the deviation from the proper monastic conduct and practices by the monks of the Buddha’s Sāsana is found as one reason. The venerable monks did not strive for their primary monastic duties; they longed for and engaged in a life of intellectual pursuits and indulgence.
These lifestyles included being a Siddhi master, a Stupa owner, a Vijjādhara, an alchemist, and a sorcerer. The path of seeking these intellectual pursuits was initiated by the ancient Indian ascetics (ṛṣis). This doctrine, in the hands of the Hindu Brahmins, was called the Tantra sect and was widely practiced.
The ancient ṛṣis composed Tantric scriptures containing gāthās, mantras, and incantations that praised the qualities of various nats and gods. The sect that follows and practices based on these scriptures is called the “Tantra sect.” There are two types of Tantra sects: the left-hand path and the right-hand path. Practitioners of the left-hand path devise gāthās, mantras, spells, incantations, and hand gestures that can command malevolent beings like ghosts, demons, giants, nat-demons, female nat-demons, and rakshasas to inflict suffering and misfortune.
The Burmese people call this left-hand path “the lower path.”
The right-hand path involves striving to overcome diseases and ailments and to increase wealth and prosperity through gāthās and mantras that praise the qualities of Brahmas and nats. The Burmese call this “the upper path.”
Emulating this Tantra sect of the Hindu Brahmins, Buddhist monks also established “Buddhist Tantra.” They invented monastic conduct and practices. Among them were practices that were identical to those of the Hindu Brahmins. There were also distinct practices.
The activities of the Tantra Buddhist sect also involved studying and practicing gāthā, mantra, spells, incantations, hand gestures, magic, the art of ghosts, the art of possession, the art of astrology, and the art of alchemy. It is said that in Tibet, due to proficiency in magic, there were 84 individuals who became Siddhas. It is not known how they disappeared.
The monks of the Buddhist Sāsana in India also longed for and practiced lifestyles like being intellectual Siddhi masters, driven by a thirst for power. They neglected the practical and beneficial work for humanity as taught by the Buddha. Even at the great center of learning like the Nālandā Buddhist University, which was extremely famous in India, they encouraged and taught the kind of knowledge that sought to obtain beautiful women from paintings through the thirst for power.
