Chapter 6: Theravada and Myanmar
The Buddha and Myanmar
Some records state that the Lord Buddha visited Myanmar during his lifetime. According to the request of the Arahat Mahathera Gavampati, the Buddha came to the city of Suvaṇṇabhūmi with 500 Arahats. As the Buddha traveled through the sky over the ocean, he saw a sandbank, the size of a resting shelduck, emerging from the water, upon which a male shelduck was perched below a female shelduck. Seeing this event, the Buddha smiled. When asked about the reason, he prophesied, “In the future, on this spot, a great city named Haṃsāvatī will arise.”
He also prophesied that the Sāsana (the Buddha’s teachings) would flourish in the lands of Suvaṇṇabhūmi and Ukkalāpa. According to this prophecy, Haṃsāvatī, Suvaṇṇabhūmi, and Ukkalāpa became lands where the Sāsana thrived.
Similarly, the Buddha prophesied from Taññakyī Mountain about the future establishment of the great city of Arimaddana, or Pagan, and the flourishing of the Sāsana there. He also journeyed to the regions of Sunāparanta and Aparanta, known as Minbu and La-waing-kyaung-daw-yar. He also left his footprints. Not only that, various chronicles have written and stated that many pagodas and cities in Myanmar came into being according to the Buddha’s prophecies. Such writings are literary works based on faith.
It is not only Myanmar that has been associated with the Buddha. Sri Lanka, also known as Sihala, also has a tradition, accepted and believed by Sri Lankan Buddhists, that the Buddha visited the island of Sihala.
Some researchers cite the commentaries (Aṭṭhakathā) to show that the Buddha visited Myanmar. These citations are not without basis. This is because some of the religious monuments within Myanmar are consistent with those scriptures. The reason for this consistency is that the ancient people of Myanmar emulated the events described in the religious scriptures and created them.
To clarify further: Myanmar had contact with the people of India from the early centuries. They accepted Indian culture. Later, Buddhism also arrived. After accepting Buddhism, the people of Myanmar studied the Buddhist literature. They developed deep faith and devotion. Liking the names in the Buddhist literature, they emulated and named places after them.
Later, Buddhists constructed religious monuments based on these names. When these monuments were later cited in chronicles with reference to the scriptures, the idea that the Buddha had visited Myanmar became a point of contention.
Many religious artifacts were created and established according to the words in the scriptures. Chronicles were written. It is from this writing that ambiguities have arisen.
In truth, whether the Buddha came to Myanmar or not is not the main issue. The main point is that the teachings of the Buddha (Dhamma Desanā) arrived. Because the Buddha’s teachings are present, the essence of the teachings has been received and is being practiced.
Thus, to know and practice the Dhamma is to have seen and met the Buddha. If one does not accept the teachings of the Buddha, even if the Buddha had come, there would be no special benefit.
The Buddha himself taught the monk Vakkali that if one does not see the essence of the Dhamma, it is not considered as having seen the Buddha, and that only by seeing the Dhamma can one see the Buddha. Now, in the Middle Country (Majjhima Desa) where the Buddha appeared, the Sāsana has weakened and faded. The Sāsana is the teaching of the doctrine. If the teachings disappear, or if people lose faith, the Sāsana will surely disappear.
Thus, because the faith was not passed down and preserved, ancient stupas like Sanchi, Bharhut, and Amaravati have been left isolated as ancient artifacts.
Now, because Myanmar has been able to carry on the tradition, it has been able to stand as a major country where Theravada Buddhism flourishes. It is also the leading nation among the five Theravada countries. From what period did Theravada Buddhism enter Myanmar?
The Beginning of the Sāsana with Tapussa and Bhallika
Ancient chronicles state that the first to bring Buddhism to Myanmar were the two brothers Tapussa and Bhallika from the city of Ukkalāpa. This evidence was taken from the Mahāvagga Pāḷi. Originally, Ukkalāpa was not in Burma. It was called the Ukkala country in India. The ancient name of Ukkala country was Asitañjana. It is now called Dhauli. It is located in the Puri district of Orissa state, southwest of Bengal.
In the “Buddhist Geographical Scripture,” the following explanation is given regarding Tapussa, Bhallika, and Ukkala:
The name Ukkalāpa in Burma should be understood as having been named by people who migrated from the Ukkala country in India, taking the name of their native land. Later, Ukkala changed to Ukkalāpa. In that scripture, the names of the two brothers Tapussa and Bhallika are written as ‘Tapassu’ and ‘Bhallika’. The original native place of Tapussa and Bhallika was the Ukkala country in India.
The lineage of the merchant brothers were people who had settled in the Lower Burma region of Rāmañña about 100 years before the Buddha appeared. The merchant brothers were traders who traveled between Ukkalāpa in Burma and Ukkala in India. The merchant brothers, from their native Ukkala country, went to the Middle Country to sell their goods. Passing through the Paṇḍu and Lāḷa countries, they reached the Uruvelā forest camp where they met the Lord Buddha.
At that time, the Lord Buddha had not yet established the order of the Sangha. It was the period just after his enlightenment. Therefore, the two brothers could only take the two refuges (in the Buddha and the Dhamma). Then, the Buddha bestowed hair relics. The merchant brothers, after receiving the hair relics, returned from their native Ukkala country to their settlement in the city of Ukkalāpa in Burma. Upon their return to Ukkalāpa, they enshrined the Buddha’s hair relics and built and worshipped the Tikuṃ (Shwedagon) Pagoda.
From that time, it can be considered that the Buddhist Sāsana reached Myanmar. According to this conclusion, the Shwedagon Pagoda in Myanmar would be the oldest pagoda in the world. We must accept and record the slogan “The beginning of pagodas is Shwedagon.”
The Second Arrival of the Sāsana
During the reign of King Asoka, after the Third Buddhist Council, missionary monks were sent to nine regions. Among them, the mission led by the venerable Sona and the venerable Uttara went to Suvaṇṇabhūmi to propagate the Sāsana.
At that time, in Suvaṇṇabhūmi, there were Rakṣasa ogres. The people were facing danger because the ogres were entering and harassing them. The two Arahants were able to protect them from the danger of the ogres, so the people came to rely on them.
The venerable Sona and the venerable Uttara preached the Brahmajāla Sutta to the people. They established them in the refuges and precepts. Due to the preaching of the venerable ones, 60,000 Buddhists were gained. 1,500 men and women entered the Sāsana and became monks and nuns.
Here, in Burmese chronicles and Sāsana histories, the region called Suvaṇṇabhūmi has been written and identified as the city of Thaton, also called Sudhammāpura, in the Mon State. Modern historical researchers, however, have concluded and shown that Suvaṇṇabhūmi refers to the Sumatra peninsula.
The name Sumatra is said to have originated from an Indian merchant named Sumitta who was the first to come and settle on this island, and it was named after him. It is said that in Pali, Sumitta, and in Sanskrit, Sumitra, came to be called Sumatra.
The Sumatra peninsula region itself was called Suvaṇṇabhūmi by the Indians. In ancient times, Indians came to this region to trade. They considered this region as valuable as gold for themselves. Therefore, the region of the Sumatra peninsula was metaphorically called Suvaṇṇabhūmi (Golden Land).
Scholars have accepted that this Suvaṇṇabhūmi, or Golden Land region, included the area around Thaton. When this proposition is further studied, supporting reasons are found.
When the venerable Sona and Uttara arrived for missionary work, the people were suffering from the danger of ogres. In ancient Mon chronicles and in the stone inscriptions of King Dhammazedi, the Thaton region was formerly called Rakkhapura (Land of the water-ogres).
From this evidence, it is known that the Thaton region was dominated by ogres. These so-called ogres can be understood as people of the Negrito ethnicity. According to archaeological studies, it is known that people of the Negrito ethnicity lived throughout the land of Myanmar in the early period.
When the Mon-Khmer ethnic group arrived in the southeastern region of Myanmar, they came into conflict with the indigenous Negrito people. The Mon-Khmers waged wars and conquered the lands. The Negritos had to abandon their lands. They had to move towards the sea. The fact that there is a large island called Bilu Kyun (Ogre Island) near the mouth of the Thanlwin River, near Mawlamyine, is good evidence.
It can be concluded that the time when the venerable Sona and company arrived for missionary work was a time of conflict between the Mon people and the Negrito water-ogres. The fact that the two venerable ones protected them from the danger of the ogres can be understood to mean that it was the Negrito people.
Although in the early days the Mon people and the water-ogre people fought each other, later some Mon and ogres lived together in harmony. It can be said that they lived together peacefully, having converted to and believed in the Buddhist teachings. This is because the Hti-saung Pagoda in Zokthok village, Bilin township, Mon State, was built and worshipped by ogres.
Mon-Burmese chronicles state that the city of Suvaṇṇabhūmi, or Thaton, was founded in the 17th century BCE. However, precise historical evidence has not yet been found.
When the historical era arrived, it was found mentioned in the Geography written by the Greek geographer Ptolemy, concerning Suvaṇṇabhūmi. Ptolemy recorded that along the coast of the Gulf of Martaban, called Besynga, lived short, rough, and sturdy wild people. This ethnic group is the people called ogres in literature. When new ethnic groups arrived, many of this ethnic group moved to the islands in the sea.
Some small groups of ogres who did not want to live among civilized people were left stranded on hills and mountain ranges. For example, in the Burmese chronicle, the ogress Caṇḍamukhī who lived on the Sagaing hills in the story of Mahāsambava and Cūḷasambava, and the ogress named Mavaṇṇa who sold flowers from Mount Popa, were of the ogre lineage who were stranded in Burma.
Considering the points mentioned above, it can be understood that the venerable Sona and Uttara were able to preach and persuade both ethnic groups around Thaton to embrace Buddhism.
Theravada and the Archaeological View
When studying the arrival of Buddhism in Myanmar using archaeological methods, it is found that Buddhism was already present in the Pyu era.
Here, it is necessary to briefly study the major ethnic groups that entered and settled in Myanmar. It has already been known from historical research that the Negrito ethnic group had settled in Myanmar. It has also been mentioned above that this group was destroyed by the Mons who entered the southeastern region. That war took place around the 3rd century BCE.
At that time, in the central region of Burma, the Pyu people were attacking and seizing territory from the Negritos. So, when did the Pyu people arrive in Myanmar?
The Pyu people founded the city of Beikthano (Vishnu) in the 1st century CE. By that time, their level of civilization was already high. Since the Pyu were able to build a city-state in the 1st century CE, it can be said that they had already arrived on Burmese soil in an earlier period. The arrival of the Pyu can be estimated to be around the 3rd century BCE.
There is also evidence to support this estimation. The army of the King of Qin severely attacked the Qiang people in 350 BCE. At that time, the Pyu people, who were part of the Lolo group, had to flee to escape the dangers of war.
Among those war refugees, some followed the Salween River. When they reached the western part of Yunnan province, they followed the Taping and Shweli rivers and descended. They settled in the plains of Burma. It can be said that this ethnic group founded the city of Beikthano in the 1st century CE.
The Pyu who founded Beikthano were people who were gentle in their social relations. They even adopted civilized arts from India. The religion that the majority worshipped was Buddhism. It was directly received from India. During the excavation of the ancient city of Beikthano, a seal bearing the inscription “Saṅghasiri” was found. Based on this point, it can be said that Buddhist monks were residing and propagating the Sāsana in the city of Beikthano.
The Sāsana that arrived in Beikthano was a type of Sāsana that flourished in the Andhra region of Southern India. It was a sect of the Sāsana that did not worship images, as concluded by researchers.
Around the 4th century CE, other Pyu people also founded and ruled new city-states. The city of Sri Ksetra near Pyay (Prome), the ancient city of Pinle, known as Maingmaw near Kyaukse, and Halingyi in the Shwebo region became prominent in history.
In the 5th century CE, the city of Beikthano was attacked and destroyed by the Sri Ksetra Pyu.
The Theravada of the Sri Ksetra Period
The Pyu people who founded the Sri Ksetra era also worshipped Buddhism. In the Sri Ksetra era, along with Theravada Buddhism, artifacts of Mahayana sect worship have also been found. On the 20 gold plates discovered at Khin Ba’s mound in Sri Ksetra, excerpts from the Theravada Tipitaka are found, written in the ancient Telugu-Kannada script of Southern India.
On the throne of a Buddha statue with a jewel, found at Kan Wet Khaung mound, a record written in Sanskrit is found on all four faces. In the ancient city of Sri Ksetra, many other pieces of evidence related to Buddhism have also been found. The majority of the evidence are symbols related to Theravada. Therefore, it is firmly known that the Buddhism of the Sri Ksetra era was Theravada Buddhism.
It can be said that the Sri Ksetra Pyu placed more importance on the Abhidhamma Piṭaka from among the Buddhist teachings. The stanza beginning “Ye dhammā hetuppabhavā” seems to have been the favorite stanza of the Pyu people. This stanza is frequently found in the Pyu territories. The stanza is as follows:
Ye dhammā hetuppabhavā,
tesaṃ hetuṃ tathāgato āha.
Tesañca yo nirodho,
evaṃvādī mahāsamaṇo.
(Translation): “Of all things that arise from a cause, the Tathāgata has told the cause; and also their cessation. Thus teaches the Great Ascetic.” (Sixth Council version)
Information about the Buddhist faith of the Sri Ksetra Pyu is also found in Chinese records written around 800 CE. The points related to Buddhism from that record will be extracted and presented.
“The capital city has 12 gates. At each of the four corners of the city, a pagoda is built. The royal palace, where the king resides, has in front of its gate an image of a sitting Buddha, which is over 100 cubits high and has a snow-white color.
When two people are in conflict, the king has them burn incense before the great Buddha statue and reflect on their faults. The two disputants soon reconcile. When dangers and great calamities befall the towns and regions, the king makes a vow before the Buddha statue, burning fragrant incense, promising to rule the people according to the law.
In the Pyu region, there are no less than 100 monasteries. The monasteries have magnificent halls decorated with gold and silver, and painted with bright colors like vermilion. The floors are also painted red and covered with carpets embroidered with flowers. The roofs of the monasteries are tiled with glazed bricks, just like the roof of the royal palace.
Pyu boys and girls, upon reaching the age of 7, have their hair cut and go to a monastery to enter the religious order. When they reach the age of 20, if they no longer follow the Buddha’s monastic discipline, they leave the order and let their hair grow long again.”
According to the evidence presented above, it is known that the Pyu people built their way of life with Buddhist culture. It can be said that the life of the Pyu people was enveloped by the Buddha’s teachings.
The Pyu people used to praise and take pride in their Buddhist religion. When they met people of other ethnicities, they would also praise and speak of Buddhism. They would compose and sing songs of the Buddha’s Dhamma.
In the years 800-802 CE, a Pyu cultural and musical troupe went to China. They had to perform in the palace of the Tang emperor. At that performance, they performed with songs of the Buddha’s life that praised the virtues of Buddhism.
In summary, the way of life of the Pyu people was the way of life of Theravada Buddhist culture. The Pyu people lived, guided by their way of life under the cool shade of Buddhism.
The Arrival of the Bamar
At the time when city-states like Beikthano and Sri Ksetra were founded, the Bamar people had not yet entered Myanmar. The people who would be called Bamar were those who arrived later. When did the Bamar people arrive in Myanmar?
Ancient chronicles state that the Bamar had been present since the 6th century BCE, or even the 9th century BCE. This statement does not refer to the Bamar people. It is a written account of the time when the Sakyan clan from India arrived.
Some researchers, however, state that they arrived only in the 9th century CE. The first to propose this was the English professor, Mr. Luce. Mr. Luce wrote this, citing the Manshu (Book of the Southern Barbarians) written by the Chinese.
He stated that the Bamar entered through the Nanzhao mountain pass in the 9th century CE and settled in the Kyaukse plain. He proclaimed the new historical theory that “the origin of the Bamar is Kyaukse.” This theory was widely promoted by his students, so much so that it was widely disseminated in school textbooks and the Encyclopedia Birmanica in later times.
The above theory is not plausible. Those who arrived in the 9th century were only “members of the Min clan.” Mr. Luce’s theories were skewed because he did not study and distinguish between the “Min clan” and the “Bamar clan.”
The members of the group who would be called Bamar can be said to have settled in the plains of Burma as early as the 5th century CE.
The early Bamar, around the 5th century CE, came down in search of clear water and fresh grass due to various reasons. Some reached the Arakan mountain range. They settled in the Arakan region under the name “Kanyan.” Some went up to the Pontaung-Ponnya mountain range. They were called “Yaw.”
Some Bamar searched for a new place between the two rivers, the Irrawaddy and the Chindwin. At that time, good settlement areas were scarce for the Bamar. The good, flat lands were under the control of the Pyu people.
The Shwebo vicinity was under the Halingyi Pyu. The Ledwin (central plain) region was under the Pinle Pyu. The lower country was the territory of the Sri Ksetra Pyu.
As the Bamar searched for a new place, they also desired the river valley area. However, good places in the river valley were scarce. Therefore, they had to settle in an area that the Pyu people did not covet. That area was the bend of the Irrawaddy River, which would later become the great city of Arimaddana, or Pagan.
The area at the foot of Tuyin Taung hill in the bend of the Irrawaddy River, although near the river, was not good for agriculture. It was also a low-rainfall area. The climate was hot. Therefore, in the Kyansittha stone inscriptions, the Pagan region was called “Tattadesa” (a place of intense heat). Because it was a valley of red, sandy soil, it was also inscribed in the Shin Disapamaukha stone inscription as “Tambadīpa” (the copper-colored island).
Around the 6th century CE, the Bamar had gathered strength. They established their own culture. In 638 CE, the Bamar adopted their own era.
Around the 9th century CE, the Bamar people who had been separated in the Nanzhao region, and those of the same lineage, the “Min” group, also arrived in Burma. At that time, the Bamar strength had grown, and they founded a new kingdom with Pagan as its center.
At that time, the Pyu people were also in a state of disarray. Sri Ksetra had fallen into ruin due to ethnic conflicts, religious disputes, and other reasons. The administrative authority was no longer stable. Power struggles broke out, and the capital was destroyed.
The northern city of Halingyi was also destroyed by the attacks of the Nanzhao in 832 CE. Again, in 835 CE, the first Pinle city (called Mi-chen = rice city, in Chinese) near the Panlaung River in the Ledwin region was also continuously attacked and destroyed by the Nanzhao. Thus, the administrative systems of the Pyu region were destroyed.
At that time, the Bamar in the Pagan region were able to expand their kingdom’s power. They came to rule over the Pyu territories as well. The Pyu people gradually came under the rule of the Bamar. In later centuries, the Pyu intermingled with the Bamar, and it reached a stage where “Pyu is also Bamar, and Bamar is also Pyu.”
The Theravada Kingdom
Around the 8th century CE, in the small city-states of the Pyu, religious beliefs were in a state of confusion. Various beliefs such as Mahayana, Brahmanism, Nat worship, and Naga worship were accepted and practiced.
When the new kingdom of Burma was founded, these various beliefs spread to the city of Pagan. That is why various beliefs are found in the early Pagan period. Among these beliefs, the Tantra sect of the Samatī Araññikas was the most widespread. In the early Pagan period, there were 30 leading Tantric monks and a following of 60,000.
When King Anawrahta ascended the throne, various beliefs were competing with each other. King Anawrahta had a strong desire to purify the religion. However, he did not know how to proceed.
At that time, he met the venerable Shin Arahan from Thaton. He had the opportunity to listen to the Buddha’s Theravada teachings. King Anawrahta was very pleased with the venerable Shin Arahan’s teachings. He became very faithful and devoted. He decided to make Theravada Buddhism flourish in his capital, Pagan.
Then, taking the venerable Shin Arahan as his teacher, he began the work of purifying the religion. He abolished the beliefs that the people had previously worshipped. The Araññika monks, who had been deceiving the people of Pagan with their Tantric and mantra practices, were forced to disrobe. Then, the disrobed Araññika monks were assigned the tasks of being mahouts, spearmen, elephant dung collectors, and horse dung collectors.
During the reign of the Farmer King, the Naga worship that had been encouraged and flourished was also banned by royal decree.
From that time onwards, Theravada Buddhism flourished. Because the ruling king encouraged it, the citizens also came to worship and revere Buddhism. Later, Myanmar became a Theravada Buddhist country.
Buddhism Under the Burmese Kings
The Theravada Buddhism established by King Anawrahta, after being firmly established, seemed to weaken during the reign of King Sawlu.
King Sawlu was a king of weak character. He did not promote capable people. He kept those who would endanger him in the palace and promoted them. He even banished a loyal and capable person like Kyansittha from the capital Pagan.
Taking this opportunity, Nga Yaman, the governor of Pegu, rebelled. Nga Yaman was a governor promoted by King Sawlu. Nga Yaman gathered his forces and marched to seize the capital Pagan.
King Sawlu personally led his army to fight Nga Yaman’s advance. Due to his lack of understanding of Nga Yaman’s military strategy, King Sawlu was captured. At that time, Kyansittha went to rescue him. However, being suspicious of Kyansittha, he did not accept the rescue. In the end, King Sawlu was killed by Nga Yaman.
Due to Nga Yaman’s invasion, the people of Pagan were terrified. When King Sawlu fell and the Pagan army was defeated, the people and monks of the capital fled to places far from the city. The population of Pagan suddenly decreased, and the once bustling Sangha also became scarce.
Later, under the leadership of Kyansittha, Nga Yaman’s rebellion was suppressed. With Kyansittha’s victory, the people of Pagan entrusted the throne of Pagan to him. Kyansittha became king unexpectedly.
King Kyansittha had to work to make Pagan prosper again. He called back the fleeing people of Pagan. He invited back the monks. Because of this re-gathering, the Buddhist Sāsana in Pagan continued to develop.
Then, throughout the Pagan period, the succeeding kings continued to worship Theravada Buddhism. They encouraged and promoted it. Throughout the lineage of Burmese kings, there were very few kings who did not give importance to Buddhism and acted disrespectfully.
King Narathu of the Pagan period once caused trouble for the monks. In the Ava period, a king like Thohanbwa, who did not believe in Buddhism and therefore killed monks, was also found. Thohanbwa was not a Buddhist, which is why he persecuted the servants of the Sāsana.
In the early days, there was a very rare case of a king who was a Buddhist but later betrayed his own religion and converted to another. That king was Natshinnaung, the king of Toungoo, who was called the Yadu king.
Throughout Burmese history and chronicles, those who cast a dark shadow on Buddhism were only these three kings.
